TOPIC 3
MUBARAKA A HAMAD (BRO. MUBA)
1.
WHAT IS AN IDIOM?
According to Webster`s Dictionary, an idiom is an expression whose
meaning cannot be predicted from the usual meanings of its constituents
element.
Also it can be defined as words, phrases, or expressions that
cannot be taken literally hence when used in ever day languages, they have
meaning other than the basic one found in a dictionary.
T.C. Cooper, said, an idiom can have literal meaning, but its
alternate figurative meaning must be understood metaphorically. For example, “break a leg”;
The lateral meaning is, someone commands someone else to break a
bone in his or her leg, and he or she should probably go to doctor afterwards
to get affixed. But, idiomatic meaning is, do your best and do well. It is
often used by actors telling each other to “break a leg” before they go out of
the stage to perform.
Apart from literal and metaphorical meaning, idioms can be
identified by number of characteristics, as identified by Michel Berman (2000),
as follow.
Firstly, we cannot normally change the words, their order, or their
grammatical forms in the same way as changing non idiomatic expression. In
other words, idioms are basically fixed expression. Take a look of the
following; “have other fish to fry” this idiom means that, to have something to
do that is more important or profitable. However we could not say “have other
salmon to fry” or other fish is to be fried. “Kick the bucket” means die, but
you cannot say “kick the pail”.
Secondly, the meaning of idioms is metaphorical rather than
literal. It is not a result of compositional function of their parts. For
examples, cat nap, which means short sleep, cut a rug – means dance, cut a
cheese – means to pass gas, fart, or to break wind.
Thirdly, the grammatical form of idiom is invariable and fixed. The
process of substitution is not allowed and passive construction cannot be
formed.
Generally, idioms are very intricate expressions to translate into
another language, the reason behind is that, idioms are cultural bound, and the
meaning is rather metaphorical than literal, and hence they should not
translated word for word.
Idioms are like metaphors, there meaning is hidden and you need to
know what idea the whole idioms carries because disserting into words and
trying to work out their meaning will not give you any clue.
If such a case, you may ask yourself if there is any golden rule to
follow as a translator, but the golden rule is that, when it comes to
translating idiomatic expression, do not create anything on your own by
translating it word for word, what you need to do is to find the closest
equivalents in the target language, use a good dictionary, ask native speakers,
or try your luck in internet search.
2.
WHAT IS A NEOLOGYSIM?
A neologism cams from two Greek word (néo-), meaning
"new", and (lógos), meaning "speech, utterance")
Therefore, a neologism is the name for a newly
coined term, word, or phrase that may be in the process of entering common use,
but has not yet been accepted into mainstream language. Neologisms are
often directly attributable to a specific person, publication, period, or
event.
Examples; chakachua, kasheshe,
mdananda and ungo (all from Swahili language).
TYPES OF
DICTIONARY
1.
MONOLINGUAL
LEARNER'S DICTIONARY (MLD)
Is a type of dictionary designed to
meet the reference needs of people learning a foreign language. MLDs are based on the premise that language-learners
should progress from a bilingual dictionary to a monolingual one as
they become more proficient in their target language
but that general-purpose
dictionaries are inappropriate for their needs. Dictionaries for learners
include information on grammar, usage common errors, collocation, and
pragmatics, which is largely missing from standard dictionaries, because native
speakers tend to know these aspects of language intuitively.
The first English MLD, published in
1935, was the New Method English Dictionary by Michal West and James
Endicott, a small dictionary using a restricted defining vocabulary of just
1490 words.
Probably the best-known English
monolingual dictionary for advanced learners is the Oxford Advanced Learner`s
Dictionary. It was originally published
in Japan in 1942 as The Idiomatic and Syntactic Dictionary of English, written by
A.S. Hornby and two collaborators. In
contrast to the bilingual dictionary, a monolingual dictionary defines words
and phrases instead of translating them.
2. A BILINGUAL DICTIONARY
OR TRANSLATION DICTIONARY.
Is a
specialized dictionary used to translate words, or phrases from one language to
another. Bilingual dictionaries can be unidirectional, meaning that they
list the meanings of words of one language in another, or can be bidirectional,
allowing translation to and from both languages. Bidirectional bilingual
dictionaries usually consist of two sections, each listing words and phrases of
one language alphabetically along with their translation. In addition to the
translation, a bilingual dictionary usually indicates the the part of speech,
gender, verb type, declension modal and other grammatical clues to help a
non-native speaker use the word.
Other features
sometimes present in bilingual dictionaries are lists of phrases, usage and
style guides, verb tables, maps and grammar references.
3. MULTILINGUAL
DICTIONARY.
Multilingual dictionaries are closely related
to bilingual dictionaries. In a multilingual dictionary, you look up a word or
phrase in one language and are presented with the translation in several languages.
Multilingual dictionaries can be arranged alphabetically or words can be
grouped by topic. When grouped by topic, it is common for a multilingual
dictionary to be illustrated.
4.
ENCYCLOPEDIC
DICTIONARY
An encyclopedic dictionary is a type of dictionary which typically includes a large number of short listings, arranged alphabetically, and discussing a wide range of topics.
Encyclopedic dictionaries can be
general, containing articles on topics in many different fields; or they can
specialize in a particular field, such as art, Biography, law, Medicine or
Philosophy.
They may also be organized
around a particular academic, cultural, ethnic, or national perspective.
A dictionary is primarily
focused on words and their definition, and typically provides limited
information, analysis of different forms, and an etymology (in more complete
dictionaries) for the word defined. Hence, while it may offer a definition, it
may leave the reader still lacking in understanding the meaning or import of a
term, and how the term relates to a broader field of knowledge.
An encyclopedia, on the other
hand, seeks to discuss each subject in more depth and convey the accumulated
knowledge on that subject. This characteristic is especially true of those
encyclopedias with long monographs on particular subjects, such as the first
ten editions of the Encyclopedia Britannica. While often organized
alphabetically, some encyclopedias were not.
Compared to a dictionary, the
encyclopedic dictionary offers a more complete description and a choice of
entries selected to convey a range of knowledge. Compared to an encyclopedia,
the encyclopedic dictionary offers ease of use, through summarized entries and
in some cases more entries of separate terms; and often reduced size, and the
reduced publishing and purchase cost that implies.
5.
THESAURUS
The word "thesaurus" is derived from a Greek word
(thēsauros) since 16th-century,
generally meaning a collection of things which are of big importance or
value.
A thesaurus is
a reference book that lists words grouped together according to similarity of
meaning (containing synonyms and sometimes antonyms),
in contrast to a dictionary, which provides definitions for words, and generally lists them in
alphabetical order.
According to Peter Roget, the main purpose of
such reference works is to help the user “to find the word, or words, by which
[an] idea may be most fitly and aptly expressed”
Although including synonyms, a thesaurus should
not be taken as a complete list of all the synonyms for a particular word.
The
entries are also designed for drawing distinctions between similar words and
assisting in choosing exactly the right word. Unlike a dictionary, a thesaurus
entry does not give the definition of words.
METAPHOR / SITIARI
A metaphor is a figure of speech that describes
a subject by asserting that it is, on some point of comparison, the same as another
otherwise unrelated object. In simpler terms, a metaphor compares two
objects/things without using the words "like" or "as".
Common types
- A dead metaphor is one in which the sense of a transferred image is absent. Examples: "to grasp a concept" and "to gather what you've understood" use physical action as a metaphor for understanding. Most people do not visualize the action—dead metaphors normally go unnoticed. Some people distinguish between a dead metaphor and a cliché. Others use "dead metaphor" to denote both.
- A mixed metaphor is one that leaps from one identification to a second identification inconsistent with the first.
Examples
of metaphor are;
1. My brother was boiling mad. (This implies he was very,
very angry.)
2. The assignment was a breeze. (This implies that the
assignment was very easy to do.)
3. it’s going to be clear skies from now on. (This implies
that clear skies are not a threat)
4. The skies of his future began to darken. (Darkness is a
threat; therefore, this implies that something negative will probably happen to
him.)
5. Her voice is music to his ears. (This implies that he
feels happy each time he hears her voice.)
6. Life is a journey.
(This implies that in life there are always going to be ups and downs,
challenges, moments of success and moments of failure...just like a journey.)
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN METAPHOR (SITIARI) AND SIMILE
(TASHBIHA)
Let us look at these few examples, which will hopefully help to
illustrate this difference clearly.
- Life is a journey.
- Life is like a journey.
- Life is as eventful as a journey.
As
stated in the previous section, the first example is the metaphor, whereas the
second and third examples are both similes. One simple way of remembering the
distinction is to bear in mind that a simile generally includes like or as,
whilst in the case of a metaphor the writer says that something actually IS
something else.
In
mathematical terms here's how one can describe it:
Metaphor:
something IS EQUAL TO something else.
Simile:
something is APPROXIMATELY EQUAL to something else.
A proverb is derived from Latin
word (proverbium),
which can be defined in different ways, according to linguistic scholars;
According to Lord John Russell
(c. 1850) “A proverb is the wit of one, and the wisdom of many.”
Mieder says, a proverb is a
short, generally known sentence of the folk which contains wisdom, truth,
morals, and traditional views in a metaphorical, fixed and memorizable form and
which is handed down from generation to generation.
Proverbs are often borrowed from
similar languages and cultures, and sometimes come down to the present through
more than one language.
Examples:
Haste makes waste.
A stitch in time saves nine.
Ignorance is bliss
Those who live in glass houses
shouldn't throw stones.
A bird in the hand is worth two
in the bush
A rolling stone gathers no moss
A poor working man blames his
tools.
POEM
A poem is an arrangement of words containing meaning and
musicality. Most poems take the form of a series of lines separated into groups
called stanzas. A poem can be rhyming or non rhyming, with a regular meter or a
free flow of poly rhythms. There is debate over how a poem should be defined,
but there is little doubt about its ability to set a mood.
Poem is identifiable by its literary and
musical elements. For example, metaphor and alliteration are common in many
poems.
Another hallmark of a poem is its brevity, or
ability to say much in few words. This requires layered meaning, as in the use
of symbolism. A common example of symbolism is the bald eagle, which is a bird,
but in the United States also represents the nation as a whole.
A poem need not rhyme or contain a consistent
meter to qualify as such, but those elements are also common to many poems.
FEATURES.
A poem can contain any number of features.
Usually a poem is broken down into lines and stanzas. They can contain full
sentences or just fragments, or a combination. The rules of grammar can be
stretched, but this skill is a bit mysterious. Many poets maintain that a poem
must demonstrate mastery over one's vernacular even while circumventing it. A
poem can be happy or sad, simple or complex, traditional or rebellious.
AN EXPERT
An expert is a
person having or showing special skill or knowledge because of what he has been
taught or what he has experienced
An
expert can be skilled person in a particular field, or someone having,
involving, or displaying special skill or knowledge derived from training or
experience. As a translator he or she must consult an expert (someone with some
degree of knowledge or translation experience, or someone with cultural
experience.
SPECIALIZED TEXTS
Specialized texts are special text which are
precise, more concise, and more systematic. Precision is a discreet feature. Only experts can control it.
A GLOSSARY
A glossary, also known as a vocabulary, or
clavis, is an alphabetical list of terms in a particular domain of knowledge
with the definitions for those terms. Traditionally, a glossary appears at the
end of a book and includes terms within that book that are either newly
introduced, uncommon, or specialized. While glossaries are most-commonly associated
with non-fiction books, in some cases, fiction novels may come with a glossary
for unfamiliar terms.
In a general sense, a glossary contains
explanations of concepts relevant to a certain field of study or action.
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